20 / 85
20
12. J. Hawks et al.,
“
Population bottlenecks and Pleistocene human evolution,
”
Mol Biol Evol 17 (2000): 2
–
22.
13. Bramble and Lieberman,
“
Endurance running.
”
For a list of hundreds of
phenotypic traits in humans that differ from the great apes, see A. Varki and T. K.
Altheide,
“
Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: Searching for needles in a
haystack,
”
Genome Research 15 (2005): 1746
–
1758.
14. A nucleotide-binding site is a piece of DNA eight nucleotides long.
Durrett and Schmidt (see below) calculated how long it would take for a single
mutation to generate a seven out of eight match for an eight nucleotide binding
site (with six out of eight nucleotides already correct) in a stretch of DNA
onethousand nucleotides long. Creation of such a binding site might affect the
behavior of genes in the region, thus affecting the phenotype of the organism.
15. R. Durrett and D. Schmidt,
“
Waiting for regulatory sequences to appear,
”
Annals of Applied Probability 17 (2007): 1
–
32. The relevant information appears on
p. 19, where the time to fixation is factored in.
16. R. Durrett and D. Schmidt,
“
Waiting for two mutations: With applications
to regulatory sequence evolution and the limits of Darwinian evolution,
”
Genetics
180 (2008): 1501
–
1509.
17. A. K. Gauger et al.,
“
Reductive evolution can prevent populations from
taking simple adaptive paths to high fitness,
”
BIO-Complexity 1, no. 2 (2010): 1
–
9,
doi:10.5048/BIO-C.
18. For a review pointing out unsolved conundrums concerning our uniqueness,
see a recent review by A. Varki et al.,
“
Explaining human uniqueness: genome
interactions with environment, behavior and culture,
”
Nature Reviews Genetics 9
(2008): 749
–
763.