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20
9. Douglas Axe amplifies this story to underscore the insufficiency of the neo-
Darwinian engine to drive evolutionary change in the next chapter.
10. D. M. Bramble and D. E. Lieberman,
“
Endurance running and the evolution of
Homo,
”
Nature 432 (2004): 345
–
352.
11.
“
Lucy
”
is 40% complete as a skeleton, with only a thigh bone and partial
pelvis to reconstruct her lower limbs, while
“
Turkana boy
”
is missing only the hands
and feet.
12. J. Hawks et al.,
“
Population bottlenecks and Pleistocene human evolution,
”
Mol Biol Evol 17 (2000): 2
–
22.
13. Bramble and Lieberman,
“
Endurance running.
”
For a list of hundreds of
phenotypic traits in humans that differ from the great apes, see A. Varki and T. K.
Altheide,
“
Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: Searching for needles in a
haystack,
”
Genome Research 15 (2005): 1746
–
1758.
14. A nucleotide-binding site is a piece of DNA eight nucleotides long. Durrett
and Schmidt (see below) calculated how long it would take for a single mutation to
generate a seven out of eight match for an eight nucleotide binding site (with six out
of eight nucleotides already correct) in a stretch of DNA onethousand nucleotides
long. Creation of such a binding site might affect the behavior of genes in the
region, thus affecting the phenotype of the organism.
15. R. Durrett and D. Schmidt,
“
Waiting for regulatory sequences to appear,
”
Annals of Applied Probability 17 (2007): 1
–
32. The relevant information appears on p.
19, where the time to fixation is factored in.
16. R. Durrett and D. Schmidt,
“
Waiting for two mutations: With applications to
regulatory sequence evolution and the limits of Darwinian evolution,
”
Genetics 180
(2008): 1501
–
1509.